With local temperatures expected to increase in the next few weeks, insect activity should also start to pick up. Even though worm pressure has been light in the field for the past month or so, it would be wise to keep a look out for corn earworm (CEW).  In the past, unusually high CEW abundance has occurred on late head lettuce, particularly in the Dome/Wellton areas.  Our latest trap catches indicate that moth counts have been nearly bottomed out for some time.  However, we did see a slight increase in CEW trap captures in the Dome and Yuma Valleys last week (~ 0.5 moths/trap/night).  This is typical for February (Areawide Trap Network) and could be the calm before the storm. In the spring seasons where larvae were heavy (2014-2016), trap catches started to increase in late February-early March and peaked by mid-to-late March. These increased trap numbers should be used as an early indicator that moths are actively flying at night at higher abundance and PCAs should start to scout more aggressively for eggs and larvae.  CEW can be very damaging in spring crops once head formation begins; larvae will usually bore into the head 1-2 days upon hatching.  Corn earworm is much more likely to bore into lettuce heads than other Lepidoptera larvae, rendering the heads unmarketable.  If fields are not watched closely, infestations may not be noticed until the head is harvested. Once inside the head, control of larvae with currently available insecticides is not possible. Thus, pay careful attention for newly oviposited eggs (laid singly) on lettuce plants. If you are beginning to find eggs and suspect that CEW are active in the field when plants are beginning to head, it would be a good idea to treat at regular spray intervals (~ 7days). The UA nominal threshold for CEW in head lettuce from early heading to harvest is 1-2 larvae / 100 plants. Essentially, you find one you spray.  Repeated insecticide treatments may be required to maintain low population levels near harvest.  Most contact insecticides recommended for Lep larvae are active against CEW. Furthermore, the addition of a pyrethroid with thrips, aphid and/or fungicide sprays may be cheap insurance against larvae infesting heads as you approach harvest. For more information on CEW management and control recommendations see Corn Earworm Management on Desert Produce and the 2022 Lep Control Chart.

There are more than 100 chemical elements known to man today.  However, only 16 have been proven to be essential for plant growth.  The essential elements for plant growth are in the upper portions of the periodic table with lower atomic numbers, indicating the lighter and more volatile elements that are in higher concentrations closer to the earth’s surface and part of the rocks that commonly serve as the parent materials for soils.
 
For a nutrient to be classified as essential, certain rigid criteria must be met.  These criteria are as follows (Havlin, et al., 2014; Troeh and Thompson, 2005; Weil and Brady, 2017; Warren et al., 2017):
 

1. The element is essential if a deficiency prevents the plant from completing its vegetative or reproductive cycle.
2. The element is essential if the deficiency in question can be prevented or corrected only by supplying the element.
3. The element is essential if it is directly involved in the nutrition of the plant and is not a result of correcting some microbiological or chemical condition in the soil or culture media.

 
The essential elements and their chemical symbols are listed in Table 1.  Three of the 16 essential elements – carbon, hydrogen and oxygen – are supplied mostly by air and water.  These elements are used in relatively large amounts by plants and are non-mineral, often referred to as organic nutrients and they are supplied to plants by carbon dioxide and water. 
 
The other 13 essential elements are mineral elements and must be supplied by the soil and/or fertilizers.  Not all are required for all plants, but all have been found to be essential to some (Tisdale & Nelson).
 
 
 
Table 1.  Essential plant nutrients, chemical symbols, and sources.

Mostly from air and water (non-mineral)	Mostly from air and water (non-mineral)	From soil and/or fertilizers (mineral)	From soil and/or fertilizers (mineral)	From soil and/or fertilizers (mineral)	From soil and/or fertilizers (mineral)
Element	Symbol	Element	Symbol	Element	Symbol
Carbon	C	Nitrogen	N	Iron	Fe
Hydrogen	H	Phosphorus	P	Manganese	Mn
Oxygen	O	Potassuim	K	Zinc	Zn
		Calcium	Ca	Copper	Cu
		Magnesium Mg	Mg	Boron	B
		Sulfur	S	Molybdenum	Mo
				Cholorine	Cl

 
 
The essential plant nutrients may be grouped into three categories.  They are as follows:
 

1. Primary nutrients - nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
2. Secondary nutrients - calcium, magnesium and sulfur
3. Micronutrients - iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum, and chlorine

 
This grouping separates the elements based on relative amounts required for plant growth and is not meant to imply any element is more essential or important than another (Troeh and Thompson, 2005; Weil and Brady, 2017; Warren et al., 2017).
 
Primary Non-Mineral Nutrients: Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
Carbon is the backbone of all organic molecules in the plant and is the basic building block for growth.  After absorption of carbon dioxide (CO₂) by the leaves of the plant, carbon is transformed into carbohydrates by combining with hydrogen and oxygen through the process of photosynthesis.
 
Metabolic processes within the plant transform carbohydrates into amino acids and proteins and other essential components.
 
The essentiality of all mineral nutrients is associated with their use in structural plant components and/or physiological and biochemical reactions associated with essential processes in plant growth and development.  Plants cannot complete the life cycle if they are deficient in an essential nutrient.
 
References
Havlin, J.L., Beaton, J.D., Tisdale, S.L. and Nelson, W.L. 2014. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers; An Introduction to Nutrient Management. 6th Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Troeh, F.R. and Thompson, L.M. (2005) Soils and Soil Fertility. Sixth Edition, Blackwell, Ames, Iowa, 489.
Warren, J., H. Zhang, B. Arnall, J. Bushong, B. Raun, C. Penn, and J. Abit. Oklahoma Soil Fertility Handbook. Published Apr. 2017; Id: E-1039
Weil, R.R. and Brady, N.C. (2017) The Nature and Properties of Soils. 15th Edition, Pearson, New York.

Botrytis rot is not considered a major problem in lettuce but it can cause significant damage/loss when the field conditions are favorable for the pathogen. Cool wet conditions are favorable for the pathogen. Symptoms include water-soaked, brownish-gray to brownish-orange, soft wet rot that occurs on the oldest leaves in contact with the soil. Old leaves are more susceptible than young leaves and the fungus can move into the healthy parts. Fuzzy gray growth can be observed in the disease area which is characteristic of the pathogen. In worse cases, the entire plant can collapse. Romaine cultivars, transplanted lettuce that are big and have leaves touching the soil are more susceptible. 
The pathogen: Botrytis cinerea 
Botrytis cinerea affects most vegetable and fruit crops, as well as a large number of shrubs, trees, flowers, and weeds. Outdoors Botrytis overwinters in the soil as mycelium on plant debris, and as black, hard, flat or irregular sclerotia in the soil and plant debris, or mixed with seed. The fungus is spread by anything that moves soil or plant debris, or transports sclerotia. The fungus requires free moisture (wet surfaces) for germination, and cool 60 to 77 F, damp weather with little wind for optimal infection, growth, sporulation, and spore release. Botrytis is also active at low temperatures, and can cause problems on vegetables stored for weeks or months at temperatures ranging from 32 to 50. Infection rarely occurs at temperatures above 77 F. Once infection occurs, the fungus grows over a range of 32 to 96 F.
 
Masses of microscopic conidia (asexual spores) are produced on the surface of colonized tissues in tiny grape-like clusters (see picture). They are carried by humid air currents, splashing water, tools, and clothing, to healthy plants where they initiate new infections. Conidia usually do not penetrate living tissue directly, but rather infect through wounds, or by first colonizing dead tissues (old flower petals, dying foliage, etc.) then growing into the living parts of the plant. 
 
 
Disease management: 
1. Buy high-quality seed of recommended varieties. Treat the seed before planting.
2. Practice clean cultivation. Plant in a light, well-drained, well-prepared, fertile seedbed at the time recommended for your area. If feasible, sterilize the seedbed soil before planting, preferably with heat. Steam all soil used for plantbeds at 180 F (81 C) for 30 minutes or 160 F (71 C) for one hour.
3. Avoid heavy soils, heavy seeding, overcrowding, poor air circulation, planting too deep, over-fertilizing (especially with nitrogen), and wet mulches.
4. Focus on healthy plant vigor. Do not over fertilize. 
5. Use drop or furrow irrigation instead of sprinklers. If sprinklers have to be used, irrigate morning or early afternoon giving enough time for foliage to dry. 
6. Apply recommended fungicides when conditions favor disease development. Make sure to rotate fungicide to avoid development of resistance. 

Interested in more information about mechanical weed control in vegetable crops? Check out this seminar given by Sam Hitchcock Tilton, Lakeshore Technical College. Topics covered include weed ecology, systems-based strategies for weed control, new and emerging machines on the market, individual tools and implements and best-use strategies for cultivating equipment. Although the target audience is small-scale vegetable growers, Sam gives many practical tips and insights that are applicable to large-scale vegetable farms. Even if you’re very knowledgeable about mechanical cultivation, this entertaining seminar is a good refresher on the basics of integrated weed management and one I think you’ll find interesting and informative.

 

Fig. 1. Sam Hitchcock Tilton presenting seminar entitled “Mechanical Weed
Control and Weed Ecology in Vegetable Production”. Click the video above to view a recording of the presentation. (Photo credits: Practical Farmers of Iowa,
Ames, IA).

Wanted to share the following weed germination calendars now that the season has begun. Some summer weeds withstand part of the winter and some winter annuals the summer, so these charts are general guidelines. We hope this helps for making management decisions in your operation.

As the intense heat of the Yuma summer finally fades, cooler days bring the promise of lush fields which set the stage for a vibrant growing season. However, the cooler weather also signals the arrival of seasonal pests, ready to take advantage of your organic fields. These pests tend to have an especially strong appetite for organic crops, making it essential to stay vigilant. Thus, it is important to implement appropriate IPM techniques to combat these insect pests effectively. It is crucial to plant resistant varieties, scout regularly, ensure your crops are healthy, diversify your crops, use physical/mechanical control, enhance biological control, or apply biopesticides when necessary. 

Remember, some IPM tactics may be unsuitable in some situations because IPM is not a one-size-fits-all. Therefore, an IPM program should be planned on a case-by-case basis. 

Area wide Insect Trapping Network   VegIPM Update, Vol. 15, No. 21, Oct 16, 2024

Results of pheromone and sticky trap catches can be viewed here.

Corn earworm: CEW moth counts increased in most traps; about average for early October.

Beet armyworm: Trap counts increased in most areas last week, and about average for early October.

Cabbage looper: Cabbage looper trap counts still most locations, below average for this time of the season.

Diamondback moth: Adult activity increasing, particularly in the Yuma and Dome Valleys.  Above average for this time of season.

Whitefly: Adult movement increasing Tacna, Dome Valley and Yuma Valley; overall about average for early October.

Thrips: Thrips adult movement picking up in all areas, overall activity above average.

Aphids: Winged aphids beginning to show up the north Yuma and Gila Valleys; about average for early October.

Leaf miners: Adult activity light in all areas, about average for this time of season